Transition Elements Transition metals are elements with an incomplete d-subshell or that can form at least one stable cation with an incomplete d-subshell This definition distinguishes them from d-...
Trends Across a Period Ionisation energies show?periodicity?– a trend across a period of the Periodic Table As could be expected from their electron configuration, the group 1 metals have a relativ...
Convergence Limits on an Emission Spectrum Emission Spectra Electrons move rapidly around the nucleus in energy shells Heat or electricity can be used to excite an electron to a higher main energy ...
Analysing Graphs The?gradient?of a graph can be found by: In the case of a straight line graph: using a triangle and the equation for a straight line In the case of a curve: drawing a?tangent?to th...
Drawing Graphs General guidance on drawing graphs Graphs need to have: Clear title Labelled axes Units on the axes Appropriate linear scales without any jumps This means the plotted graph must occu...
Percentage Error Percentage error?is used to express the difference between a final calculated answer and an accepted or literature value It is calculated using the following formula You should be ...
Reducing Errors Random errors?can be reduced by repeated trials and measurements Multiple measurements when averaged will reduce the impact of a?random error?on the average The more readings you ha...
Types of Errors An error is the difference between a value or quantity obtained in an experiment and an accepted or literature value for an experiment There are two types of errors in experiments,?...
Qualitative & Quantitative data When recording results of experiment, both?quantitative?and?qualitative?data should be obtained Quantitative data?is obtained from measurements whereas?qualitati...
How IR Spectroscopy works All?covalent bonds?act rather like springs, as opposed to rigid bars Like springs, the bonds can vibrate in a number of different ways The frequency of vibration occurs in...
How NMR works Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)?spectroscopy is used for analysing organic compounds Only atoms with?odd?mass numbers?show signals on?NMR?spectra and have the property of?nuclear?spi...
Determining Molecular Mass When a compound is analysed in a mass spectrometer, vaporised molecules are bombarded with a beam of high-speed electrons These knock off an electron from some of the mol...
